Tucker
Hagen
We used logistic regression to predict predation events for 535 clusters. 2010 ). A. D.
When the female is in estrus she may mate with the male more than 20 times per day. E. L.
,
The canines of a lion (left), which are long, sharp and slightly recurved, are excellent tools for grasping and wounding prey, while the sharp premolars are effective in tearing away chunks of flesh.
From 2012 to 2013, we deployed 9 real-time GPS collars to investigate mountain lion feeding habits.
The number of individuals that fed at our bait sites (minimum 24 individuals, 76 events), but were not captured, indicated that scavenging may occur more in this system than demonstrated by our marked individuals. 2010 ; Smith 2014 ). .
Third, information from our bait sites indicated that mountain lions exhibiting scavenging behavior may not stay at a scavenge site long enough for the formation of a GPS cluster, resulting in an underestimation of the influence of scavenging on mountain lion diets.
K. M.
We programmed GPS collars to collect 8 locations/day (0000, 0300, 0600, 0900, 1200, 1500, 1800, and 2100h).
. D. L.
After testing for correlation between variables ( r ≥ 0.7; SYSTAT 11.0), we developed a priori models using uncorrelated variables and fit them to our investigated GPS clusters.
Buotte
2008 ). Smith
Due to nearly complete consumption (e.g., only hooves, leg bones, or jaws remaining) prior to investigation of the cluster, differentiation of deer species and sex was often difficult for juvenile ungulates within the first few months postpartum. We chose our cutoff values by maximizing the overall model accuracy, defined as the sum of the true positive predictions and true negative predictions divided by the sum of actual positive and negative clusters ( Sing et al. Sand
Additionally, the complete consumption of some small prey items could have resulted in our inability to detect them even if clusters were generated.
Higher energetic needs of FGs ( Laundré 2005 ) likely explain their higher feeding rates; variation within our winter FG class was likely due to differences in age of kittens not accounted for in our grouping.
Cooley
H. W.
We monitored mountain lions for 1,845 telemetry-days, investigated 506 GPS clusters, and identified 292 feeding events. (2014) .
Proportion of juvenile ungulates in mountain lion diets increased during the fawning season (June‒August) following the ungulate birth pulse in June (June–August = 60.7%, 95% CI = 43.0–78.3; September–May = 37.2%, 95% CI = 30.8–43.7), resulting in an ungulate kill rate 1.61 times higher (1.41 ungulates/week, 95% CI = 1.12–1.71) than during the remainder of the year (0.88 ungulates/week, 95% CI = 0.62–1.13). T. E.
The top model for predicting consumption of prey ≥ 4kg at GPS clusters included hours, average distance, night proportion, season, and fidelity as covariates. Smith
Additionally, noninvestigated clusters had a much lower number of night locations ( X¯ = 1.9 night locations/cluster) when compared to investigated clusters ( X¯ = 5.1 night locations/cluster); investigated sites with prey items present contained an average of 7.2 night locations/cluster. 1 ). This behavior resulted in a much larger proportion of noninvestigated clusters having a low number of cluster hours compared to our investigated clusters.
Zoo lions are given mostly beef, sometimes including beef bones.
The Steller Sea Lions niche is a consumer and it mostly eats fish, by eating the fishes this keeps the fish population under-control. Other carnivores including coyote ( Canis latrans ), bobcat ( Lynx rufus ), and red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) were present as both potential competitors of and prey items for mountain lions.
Logan
Therefore, we visited clusters containing ≥ 2 locations from May through August and those containing ≥ 3 locations from September to May.
M. G
We observed significant seasonal variation in prey composition (ungulate or nonungulate distribution) for both sexes (female, χ 21 = 14.347, P < 0.001; male, χ 21 = 11.591, P = 0.001); however, prey composition was similar between sexes (χ 23 = 1.136, P = 0.768) throughout both seasons.
Klaver
Dunn
We considered a cluster (i.e., a potential feeding site) as ≥ 2 GPS locations within 200 m over a 6-day period ( Knopff et al.
,
Jenks
Deer ( Odocoileus spp.) Once clusters were identified, we downloaded all GPS locations associated with the cluster into a hand-held GPS unit (Garmin International, Olathe, Kansas) and visited clusters as soon as possible to determine possible predation events. Our 2,050-km 2 study area comprised approximately one-third of the Little Missouri Badlands and was contained within “Zone 1” (limited harvest region) of the mountain lion hunting area, as defined by the North Dakota Game and Fish Department ( Fig. We studied mountain lion predation in western North Dakota, within Billings, Dunn, and McKenzie counties.
2010 ; Elbroch et al. Merrill
c Weight estimates obtained from Smith et al.
Our assessment of small prey consumed also may represent an underestimation as mountain lions would likely exhibit shorter handling times with these items, which could result in clusters not generated at these sites.
H. B.
. 2015 ).
Requiring a minimum of 3 night points reduced no-prey clusters dramatically (74%), however, the percentage of 0–3 month ungulate clusters investigated would have dropped to 66%, thus, underestimating mountain lion predation on juvenile ungulates. With Their Long, Slender Fingers They Can Pick Insects Out Of Crevices WithIn Tree Bark. (2010) and Smith (2014) . Use of larger prey items and higher scavenge rates are likely drivers of a lower ungulate kill rate for mountain lions. We used all 3 rates to estimate annual feeding rates of mountain lions by using individuals as the unit of analysis and pooling data across season and demographic class. 2005 ). K. A.
Estimated overall scavenge rates (6.7%) in our study area were comparable to those for mountain lions in Alberta, Canada (5.8%— Knopff et al. ,
Van Deelann
(2010) found that the proportion of clusters containing bed sites or mountain lion sign, but no prey items, was highest when the clusters were generated between 0800 and 1700.
Goldman
Zimmermann
A.
However, maximizing the true negative rate, or specificity, may lead to an underestimate of kill rate by misclassifying many sites as not having a ≥ 4kg prey item present. For comparison, an average human eats only about four pounds in a whole day. Our sample of FGs consisted of 1 female with 3 kittens > 9 months, 1 female with 3 kittens 3‒6 months, and 1 female with kittens < 3 months. We thank W. Schmaltz, A.
Understanding these regional differences in populations of mountain lions is important for management because mountain lions inhabit a wide range of habitats, thus are affected by varying social and political pressures ( Jenks 2011 ). .
A.
M. S.
First, we developed a model using the lme4 package ( Bates et al.
B.
The most common prey are zebras, giraffes, pigs, cape buffalo, antelope and wildebeests.
Cheatum
Higher ungulate kill rates observed in some studies, both in terms of ungulates/week and kg/day, may be due to premature carcass abandonment by mountain lions in the presence of potential scavengers such as bears ( Ursus sp.— Murphy et al. Other types of flesh are also fed, for example, horse meat, but this is much less common.
Our estimates of live weight prey biomass killed by mountain lions (6.55kg/day) were much lower than that reported by Elbroch et al.
Kreeger
Quite an appetite. More recent studies have employed GPS collars to aid in monitoring large carnivore predation ( Anderson and Lindzey 2003 ; Webb et al.
Additionally, we found considerable increases in nonungulate consumption during summer by males and females, which was contrary to findings of Knopff et al. D.
M. S.
A larger sample of mountain lions would increase the precision of our estimates and more data are needed to differentiate potential differences in mountain lion predation rates between seasons and among demographic groups.
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